Moving Efficiently Through Water

a thresher shark with a very long caudal fin swims away from the camera in open blue water

Biological Strategy

Animals

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Image: Klaus Stiefel / Flickr / CC BY - Creative Commons Attribution alone

Adapt Behaviors

The environment is constantly changing, and if living systems can’t adapt to these changes, they don’t survive. Environmental changes can be cyclic such as seasons, sudden such as floods or forest fires, or gradual but long-term, such as ecosystems shifting from early to mature stages. These changes require some flexibility in behavioral responses to match the specific conditions. For example, as a fish called the lamprey swims, it constantly faces changes in currents. Skin sensors help it detect those changes and adjust its motion accordingly.

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Optimize Shape/Materials

Resources are limited and the simple act of retaining them requires resources, especially energy. Living systems must constantly balance the value of resources obtained with the costs of resources expended; failure to do so can result in death or prevent reproduction. Living systems therefore optimize, rather than maximize, resource use. Optimizing shape ultimately optimizes materials and energy. An example of such optimization can be seen in the dolphin’s body shape. It’s streamlined to reduce drag in the water due to an optimal ratio of length to diameter, as well as features on its surface that lie flat, reducing turbulence.

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Manage Turbulence

A turbulent force occurs when air or water creates a chaotic or irregular motion. The source can be such things as wind, waves, and eddies caused by obstructions to air or water flow (such as that created by a rock in a stream). Because the force is irregular, it acts in unpredictable ways on multiple parts of a living system at any given time, decreasing the living system’s efficiency. Strategies used to manage turbulence include dampening the amount of turbulence, having flexibility to handle sudden changes, and making quick adjustments. An example is the mucus on aquatic organisms, such as barracuda sharks, that can reduce turbulent friction of seawater by 66%. In doing so, it decreases drag and increases the sharks’ swimming efficiency.

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Move in/on Liquids

Water is not only the most abundant liquid on earth, but it’s vital to life–so it’s no surprise that the majority of life has evolved to thrive on and under its surface. Moving efficiently in and on this dense and dynamic substance presents unique challenges and opportunities for living systems. As a result, they have evolved countless solutions to optimize drag, utilize surface tension, fine tune buoyancy, and take advantage of various types of currents and fluid dynamics. For example, sharks can slide through water by reducing drag due to their streamlined shape and specially shaped features on their skin.

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Animals

Kingdom Animalia (“having breath or soul”): Mammals, reptiles, sponges, corals, insects, birds

This kingdom captures a staggering variety of life—from the smallest coral polyp to the largest elephant. Although animal body shapes and life histories vary, there are a few defining characteristics. Animals are heterotrophs, meaning they gain energy from eating other organisms, and have developed from single-celled ancestors to highly diversified and coordinated multicellular forms. Unlike plant and fungi cells that have rigid cell walls, animal cells are bound by more flexible combinations of proteins. Most animals have cells organized into tissues and are able to move within their environment.

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Aquatic organisms move effectively through water by maximizing propulsion efficiency.

Image: Diliff / Wikimedia commons /

A Smalltooth sawfish (Pristis pectinata) swimming in the Ocean Voyager tank of the Georgia Aquarium on 23rd January, 2006. This photo was taken by myself with a Canon 5D and 24-105mm f/4L IS.

Image: Seotaro / Wikimedia commons /

Motsugo(Stone moroko), Pseudorasbora parva, Collected from Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan and later photographed an aquarium.

“It [the Froude propulsion efficiency] says that for highest efficiency, the velocity of the fluid issuing from the propulsive unit–paddle, propeller, jet, or whatever–should be as close as possible to the velocity of the craft…Clearly the way to maximize Froude propulsion efficiency consists of moving the largest possible mass-per-time (m/t) of fluid and giving it the least possible increase in speed (v₂-v₁). In practical terms that means maximizing S, the cross section of the propulsive flow stream.”

While the Froud efficiencies “vary in quality and involve differenty underlying assumptions and simplifications, the picture that emerges is satisfyingly consistent with our expectations.”

“* Moving water with undulating body, beating wing, or swinging tail beats squeezing water out of a jet, as anticipated. A squid may jet fast, but when it wants to go far, it’s more likely to use its fins.

“* The same undulating devices do better than systems that move water back-wards with a paddling system, with its alternating power and recovery strokes. We’ll return to this comparison between ‘lift-based’ and ‘drag-based’ propulsion in chapter 13.

“*Bigger (or at least moderate size) is better than smaller. Except for one questionable datum for a bacterial flagellum, no creature below about a centimeter in length does better than η_f = 0.5. The pernicious effects of low Reynolds number (chapter 11) cannot be denied.

“*The broad hydrozoan medusae (essentially small jellyfish) may use jet propulsion, but they do it by pushing out an especially large volume (relative to their own) through a wide aperture. So they have a much higher m and lower v₂ than the other jetters, and thus evade most of the difficulty inherent in equations (7.5) and (7.6).” (Vogel 2003:142-143)

Last Updated October 7, 2016

References

While the Froud efficiencies “vary in quality and involve differenty underlying assumptions and simplifications, the picture that emerges is satisfyingly consistent with our expectations.”

Book

Comparative Biomechanics: Life's Physical World, Second Edition

17/06/2013 | Steven Vogel

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